Each of us is familiar with the skill and art of persuasion. Aristotle understood that this art was important to every person’s work and personal lives. Indeed, as the Greeks were developing democracy, the need to speak well and persuasively emerged as the only way to accomplish anything politically. From this need, the studies of oration, logic, and rhetoric, among others, sprang.
In virtually every profession, one person needs to convince another person to take a certain action. Coaches need to persuade their athletes to employ methods in and outside of the gym. Writers need to persuade the reader in the writing itself, and persuade people to read their writing in the first place. Business owners need to convince potential customers to choose their product, and so forth. Persuasion is as informal as asking for the salt and pepper, and as austere as a United Nations address, and everywhere in between.
Aristotle observed that understanding what drives human behavior, including but not exclusively emotion, was the key to determining how to best persuade a person to make a choice. At the time he wrote Rhetoric, the Sophists had sunk to teaching their students how to win an argument at all costs, including with false information and deception. Additionally, the Sophists were notorious for using emotion to manipulate their subjects. Aristotle acknowledges that emotion can be a powerful motivator, but rightly asserts that rhetoric is based on logical arguments. Therefore, while emotion is certainly an effective persuasion tool when used correctly and responsibly, we must ensure our arguments – first and foremost – have a strong logical foundation on which to build.
Overview
In this article, I’ll give a brief overview of rhetoric, why it is a timely subject for everyone, and the biggest takeaways from the text, then move into a summary for each section which will be a bit more detailed. Aristotle’s text is divided into ten sections, which model I will follow in my summarizing. I conclude with my thoughts on how this ancient text fits seamlessly into our very modern, connected world, and can even help improve our experience in it.
What is Rhetoric?
Aristotle defines it within the text as,“observing the persuasiveness of a given item.” Further, it is the art of persuasion, a sort of play on words, contrasting rhetoric with the science of logic or dialectic. Because the aim of dialectic is to come to a precise, logical conclusion it can be regarded as science, however rhetoric aims to be a little less precise, only needing to convince the listener to decide for or against an argument. Rhetoric is best employed in areas where science does not provide a clear, decisive answer. The work of the rhetorician is to uncover the persuasive aspects of a given subject and present them to the audience, listener, audience, whomever.
What does persuasion have to do with me?
Persuasion is something we employ daily. We aim to convince others to see things our way all the time. We persuade our friends when deciding which restaurant to eat at, or which television series to watch. We send emails that we expect the recipients to read. In choices with more consequence, convincing your boss to implement your ideas for the company or in attracting clients to your business.
Writers especially, need to be able to make persuasive arguments based in logic. We also need to be able to express our thought process clearly, and outline that process step by step, examining each prong of the argument for assumption or faulty logic. Being able to elicit emotion is a type of proof to consider, but remember, it is the least strong of the proofs. Additionally, if you can not undo or overrule the emotion wrought by your opponent’s argument, you’ve taken yourself out of the running.
Persuasion being a part of everyday life is something Emerson would have appreciated. Emerson famously encouraged book learning to be just the starting point of one’s education on a subject. The most important part was implementing in and putting that knowledge into practice by living it. In the spirit of exploring and utilizing what we learn in books, the best way to use Aristotle’s principles of rhetoric is to persuade our audience as to why this book is an excellent and needed read.
Know your audience
An important part of persuading your audience to agree with you is to do the work of understanding them. We need to know who we are writing for or speaking to; what are their problems? Why would one choice be more attractive to them than another choice? If you are selling shoes, what makes your shoe a better product for your target audience than the other guy’s shoe? You can see why rhetorical principles are commonly taught in marketing courses! This degree of understanding can only come about through experience or research. Either way, a considerable amount of work is required to uncover the motivations and desires of your audience before crafting of an argument can begin.
Walk-through of Text:
Section One
This serves as the introduction to rhetoric and outlines the arguments Aristotle will detail in the text. Central to Aristotle’s argument, and a recurring theme throughout, is the work involved with the art of rhetoric. He defines rhetoric as the “detection of the persuasive aspects of each matter.” This phrasing helps illustrate just how much work is involved in uncovering these persuasive aspects, framing them in the context of the matter at hand, and successfully extinguishing opposing arguments.
Section Two
Aristotle describes the three types of rhetorical speech, outlining the aims and contexts of each, and how to effectively use each. Rhetoric also touches on the study of ethics, because it considers how one should act, not simply whether one should act.
The three types of proof to consider:
- Ethos: Character of the subject; second strongest
- Pathos: Disposition of the audience; eliciting an emotional response, weakest
- Logos: Speech itself, in demonstrating argument; strongest proof
The three kinds of rhetorical speech:
- Deliberative, which exhorts or deters the audience from a future action.
- Forensic, which debates the just or injustice of a past event.
- Display, which praises or disparages a present subject.
This section lays the foundation of the discussion to come by defining the terms and topics which Aristotle will explain in further detail, beginning with the next chapter.
Section Three
Here, Aristotle begins relaying his remarkable understanding of human behavior, which continues impressively through the next four sections. He argues that happiness is the chief aim of every person, and that ‘happiness’ may different forms at different times and for people of different backgrounds, circumstances, and motivations. Aristotle gives several definitions of happiness, the central one describing “the pleasantest secure life or material well-being accompanied by the capacity to safeguard or procure the same.” Self-sufficiency, then, and the capacity to secure that which makes you happy is a chief aim of every person. Under this heading fall health continuing into old age, wealth, honor, a good family, and good friends. This idea of happiness being everyone’s chief aim is echoed centuries later by John Stuart Mill in his Utilitarianism,
“It results from the preceding considerations, that there is in reality nothing desired except happiness. Whatever is desired otherwise than as a means to some end beyond itself, and ultimately to happiness, is desired as itself a part of happiness, and is not desired for itself until it has become so.”
Additionally, Aristotle speaks of the necessity of learning from others and using that knowledge in considering and developing your arguments.
“One should not only survey these from one’s own experience, but become a student of what has come to light elsewhere for the purpose of deliberation on these points.” (p. 85)
Section Four
An interesting observation in the Lawson-Tancred translation is that Aristotle himself puts his weakest argument in the middle of the work; allowing the more persuasive points of the need to outline rhetoric and the structure in which to do so, to be the points which remain with the audience after the fact. It is interesting to analyze not simply the content, but the structure of a text in part about structuring arguments.
He outlines the beginning of each section, defining the term which he will detail. He then outlines the numerous causes or uses for the term, taking care to also define the term having the opposite meaning. This simple step of clarifying terms sets expectations for the audience, it puts the speaker (writer) and listener (reader) in the same place from the start, eliminating much potential for miscommunication. It also prevents many assumptions and ambiguity by using the term as defined, and allows the audience to follow your logic more easily. The emotional aspect of a term, interestingly, is largely eliminated simply by sharing with your audience how you will use a specific word or phrase.
A secondary benefit of defining each section is that it shows how that subject fits into the larger sections and ultimately, the book as a complete, cohesive work. We see that he deals first with the kinds of arguments, next with the underlying motivations, then emotion, and lastly with the style and presentation of the argument, illustrating the work to be done in building persuasive arguments.
Section Five
Aristotle’s observations on why men of differing social classes are each drawn to crime, for example, hold up two thousand years later, revealing an accomplished study of humanity. Aristotle outlines ten different emotions, giving the circumstances and impetus for each with amazing accuracy. This is an individual who has committed to studying how and why humans make the choices they do, and written it down for the world to study and benefit from. Knowing these triggers and circumstances produce certain emotions allows us to thoughtfully consider the form and content of the argument we undertake.
Section Six
Focusing on emotional arguments, Aristotle details the circumstances and desires of ten emotional states. He outlines how understanding the causes for emotional helps us to craft arguments which elicit the desired emotional response from the listener and/or audience.
He then walks through the instances and circumstances which allow for the use of drawing on the emotions, for example, the conditions which elicit anger in a person.
“One must in each case divide the discussion into three parts. Take the case of anger. We must say what state men are in when they are angry, with what people they are accustomed to being angry, and in what circumstances.” (p.141) [emphasis mine]
Section Seven
Again, Aristotle offers his observations and insight on the circumstances and motivations of different stages and statuses of life: those of youth, old age, wealth, good birth, prime and power. Accordingly, the concerns and therefore, motivating factors for each are different, as those of a youth differ from those of an old man in power, for example.
Section Eight
Aristotle outlines topics which lend themselves to each of the three types of proofs; the effective usages of examples, maxims, and common knowledge; and of several logical devices. The sheer number of topics listed impresses just how knowledgeable and disciplined the skilled orator must have been.
Section Nine
Not only are Aristotle’s findings important and helpful in crafting arguments, analyzing the form in which he presents his ideas is also worthwhile. As this section details, it is not simply what is written, but the form and tone which make an argument persuasive. Our author shows how metaphor and simile must be paired with appropriate subject matter to avoid absurdity, and also be appropriate for the audience. Choosing the right words, set in the right order, and said in the correct tone; the use of metaphor, wit, vividness, and suitability to genre.
This was my favorite section because it celebrates the art of bringing words together in a beautiful and compelling manner!
Section Ten
The final section, on composition, explores ordering the argument, and placement of rhetorical devices; guidance on refutation, narrative, and prejudicing the audience. It also includes the epilogue where Aristotle, in line with his own recommendations, reviews the arguments he has made and ends with a non-emotional (asyndetic) ending.
Conclusion
While Aristotle clearly goes into more depth than convincing your friends to eat at your favorite restaurant, we can see that giving time and consideration both to whom we are speaking, and the appeal of our choice, we can create persuasive arguments. We can take a moment to put our words in a compelling, easy to read order when we send our next work email.
Especially timely in the current climate of emotional appeals and little patience (or desire) for understanding, Aristotle’s Rhetoric shines like a beacon, encouraging us to do the work of discovering and crafting logical arguments in our exploration of the art of persuasion.
The text itself is a study on human psychology, motivation, and word-crafting, with a brief synopsis of linguistics to bring it together. It details how to uncover persuasive elements to create a persuasive argument, the best arrangements of logical structures, the importance and influence of emotion in decision-making, and the style and arrangement best suited to particular sorts of arguments.
It also serves as an incredibly accurate and comprehensive source of insight when you need to construct a persuasive argument. This text was required reading in high schools in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and it’s principles are still taught in speaking and marketing classes today. At under 300 pages, it is a dense, but important read, sure to help readers learn to consider the audience and motivation of the listener when gathering information, constructing the most persuasive argument possible and delivering that argument in the most convincing and appropriate manner. Rhetoric is a text which rewards its readers; the return on investment is massive. I don’t know the last book I read which was so helpful on so many levels, and touching on every part of an argument; words, audience, problems, metaphor, emotion, and presentation. Thinking and writing well is a complex undertaking, and I love that Aristotle has so vividly depicted that meticulous endeavor.
Ed. note: This is the seventh entry in a series looking at the three schools of philosophy for perspectives on relationships in our modern world. Inspired by Emerson’s “The American Scholar,” we are exploring timeless wisdom which endures to inform our approaches to learning, relationships and leadership.Click here for all the posts in this series.
